Cyrus the Great

A standout leader among Mesopotamian monsters

I’ve always believed that historical figures ought to be judged not by our modern ideas of morality, but instead in contrast to the standards of their time. Cyrus the Great of Persia stands out against his contemporaries in this regard. The world Cyrus was born into was one of brutality and bloodshed. His semi-mythical origin story goes that when Cyrus was born, his grandfather Astyages, king of the Medes, ordered that Cyrus be killed, because Astyages had a prophetic dream which foretold that Cyrus would usurp his throne. When Astyages found out that Harpagus, (the royal advisor ordered to perform the murder) had instead presented a stillborn to the king and spared Cyrus, Astyages cut up and served Harpagus’ own son to him as dinner. So yeah, that’s pretty much as bad as it gets.

While Harpagus was punished, Cyrus was spared and sent to live with his father, (The son of Astyages and king of the province of Anshan, near modern-day Shiraz) and would fulfill the prophecy, succeeding his grandfather and ascending to the throne in 559 B.C.E.. Although he ruled Anshan as a loyal vassal to the Median Empire, Cyrus would come to blows with Astyages after his treacherous grandfather launched a surprise attack on Cyrus, who was warned by Harpagus, who understandably defected from Astyages’ side. Amazingly, Cyrus would spare his murderous grandfather, and by some accounts, may have even installed him as a governor.

Cyrus’ ascension to the throne would mark the founding what would come to be the Achaemenid Persian Empire. While he would still employ violence and threats in the expansion of his nascent empire, comparing him to his predecessors and contemporaries reveals a ruler who exercised unique and sage levels of clemency, and yet still (or perhaps therefore) outshone the accomplishments of all those who came before him. His honorable conduct in the possession of near-absolute power is and has been a model for leaders everywhere, be they politicians or CEOs.

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If only you knew how bad things really were.

To get a sense for the cruelty and brutality of the time, let’s review a list of Cyrus’ prominent predecessors. We’ll go over what we know about their reign and review some of their own accounts of the terror and havoc they wreaked across the near east.

1. Shalmaneser III (858-824 B.C.E.) - A powerful king of the Assyrian Empire, and son of Ashur Nasirpal II, Shalmaneser III was known for following in his father’s footsteps, defining his rule with themes of military campaign and expansion, racking up 35 campaigns in his 34 years on the throne. Under Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III, when enemies refused to pay regular tribute, a few vulnerable cities would be taken and their inhabitants tortured by rape, mutilations, beheadings, flaying of skins, or impalement upon stakes. This “ideology of terror” was designed to discourage armed insurrection, lest Assyria exhaust its resources. His northern expeditions may have been the spark that led to the rise of Assyria’s main regional rival, the Kingdom of Urartu. The famous “Black Obelisk” records five scenes of Shalmaneser III receiving tribute from conquered peoples and kings.

   

   A statue of Shalmaneser III

   

   The Black Obelisk

   “I filled the wide plain with the corpses of his warriors. These rebels I impaled on stakes. A pyramid of heads I erected in front of the city.”

   -Shalmeneser III

2. Tiglath-Pileser III (745-727 B.C.E.) - Tiglath-Pileser III was the main revitalizer of the Assyrian Empire, after it’s existence was threatened by a northern rival kingdom known as Urartu, and he is credited with the institutionalization of mass deportations as policy, forcefully relocating conquered peoples to break their identity, reduce resistance, and to provide a workforce for imperial infrastructure, like roads and irrigation ditches.

   

   A royal palace stele depicting Tiglath Pileser III

   

   The Assyrian Empire grew to the size shown in pink under Tiglath Pilieser III, but had receded far past the borders set by Shalmeneser III’s greatest extents.

   “I hung their king up in front of the gate of his city on a stake. His
   land, his wife, his sons, his daughters, his property, his treasure I carried off. All of the people I carried off to Assyria.”

   -Tiglath Pileser III
   

3. Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.E.) - The Assyrian king Sennacherib was the successor to Sargon, and is known for his military campaigns, particularly the razing of the city of Babylon (which he did in response to revolts caused by his refusal to take the hand of their chief god Marduk as his patron) and the siege of Jerusalem. His reign was marked by extreme cruelty, with numerous instances of torture, flaying, and beheading, and ended when he was assasinated by two of his own sons, who in turn were assasinated by his third son. Sargon conquest and Sennacharib’s subsequent repression of Levantine people’s under Assyrian rule drove many Phoenicians to attempt escape across the Mediterranean, who settled in many colonies in their trade network, including Carthage.

   

   Sennacherib’s prism, which covers his campaigns from Elam to Phonecia, and ends with the burning of Babylon.

   
   Sennacharib recounts of his sack of Babylon:

   “Into my land I carried off alive Mušēzib-Marduk, king of Babylonia, together with his family and officials. I counted out the wealth of that city—silver, gold, precious stones, property and goods—into the hands of my people; and they took it as their own. The hands of my people laid hold of the gods dwelling there and smashed them; they took their property and goods.
   I destroyed the city and its houses, from foundation to parapet; I devastated and burned them. I razed the brick and earthenwork of the outer and inner wall of the city, of the temples, and of the ziggurat; and I dumped these into the Araḫtu canal. I dug canals through the midst of that city, I overwhelmed it with water, I made its very foundations disappear, and I destroyed it more completely than a devastating flood. So that it might be impossible in future days to recognize the site of that city and its temples, I utterly dissolved it with water and made it like inundated land.”

   And another Sennacherib classic:

   “I cut their throats like lambs. I cut off their precious lives as one
   cuts a string. Like the many waters of a storm, I made their gullets and entrails run down upon the wide earth. My prancing steeds harnessed for my riding, plunged into the streams of their blood as in to a river. The wheels of my chariot, which brings low the wicked and the evil, were bespattered with blood and filth. With the bodies of their warriors I filled the plain, like grass. Their testicles I cut off, and tore the privates like the seeds of a cucumber. “

4. Ashurbanipal (668-627 B.C.E.) - The last great king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Ashurbanipal was known for his vast library and cultural achievements, but also for his unrelenting cruelty. He brutally suppressed revolts and used horrific tactics like skinning his enemies alive, beheading, and impaling them, and erected monuments documenting these acts as a means of suppressing further insurrection.

   

   This statue of Ashurbanipal stands outside of the San Francisco Civic Center

After the Elamites betrayed him in his first campaign against the kingdom of Elam, Ashurbanipal would record of his siege against the rebellious Babylonians:

“They ate the flesh of their sons and daughters because of starvation.”

“The rest of those living I destroyed…and their carved-up bodies I fed to dogs, to pigs, to wolves, to eagles, to birds of the heavens, to fishes of the deep.

In his second campaign against the kingdom of Elam he would write:

“Susa, the great holy city, abode of their gods, seat of their mysteries, I conquered. I entered its palaces, I opened their treasuries where silver and gold, goods and wealth were amassed... I destroyed the ziggurat of Susa. I smashed its shining copper horns. I reduced the temples of Elam to naught; their gods and goddesses I scattered to the winds. The tombs of their ancient and recent kings I devastated, I exposed to the sun, and I carried away their bones toward the land of Ashur. I devastated the provinces of Elam and on their lands I sowed salt.”

This conquest of Elam was both particularly cruel and unwise of Ashurbanipal.

Instead of securing the frontier, or annexing Elam into the Neo-Assyrian Empire, he simply burned and looted the province in retribution, leaving a power vacuum in the province, which the Medes would exploit in their rise to power.

5. Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 B.C.E.) - The only non-Assyrian to make my top 5 list of Mesopotamian bad-boys is Nebuchadnezzar II.

The Neo-Babylonian Empire in the 6th Century BCE, after the partition of Assyria by the Babylonians and the Medes. Babylon and Egypt would fight a series of proxy wars and battles over influence in the lower Levant, leading to the destruction of Jerusalem and the kingdom of Judah.

As the ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Nebuchadnezzar II is best known for his conquest and later destruction of Jerusalem and Solomon’s Temple, the deportation of the Jews to Babylon, and the construction of the Hanging Gardens and Median Walls of Babylon. He restored Babylon from it’s destruction under Sennacherib. However grand his construction and reconstruction projects may have been, his reign was marked by harsh treatment of conquered peoples and forced labor. Because he was not a blood-lusty Assyrian however, he incriminates himself a lot less in his inscriptions, instead painting himself as a great builder.

Nebu-CHAD-nezzar (Babylonian artist’s rendition)

The Jewish scribes he enslaved are not as forgiving of Nebuchadnezzar II’s transgressions. In their account of the burning of their cities, they would claim that the fires burned so hot as to melt the limestone bricks of their homes into lime. They also claim that when Zedekiah, Nebuchadnezzar’s appointed governor rebelled, he “killed Zedekiah’s sons in front of him, then gouged out his eyes so it would be the last thing he ever saw”. Not many contemporary sources other than the writings of Hebrew scribes exist from this period, making Nebuchadnezzar II a dark horse, but his grand works of infrastructure and centralization would become a torch that Cyrus the Great would carry forward.

Nebchadnezzar’s Ishtar Gate, part of the Babylonian wall complex.

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How does Cyrus compare?

Cyrus the great depicted as “Chad” in profile

In contrast to these ruthless leaders, Cyrus the Great's reign was marked by a more enlightened approach to leadership. He emphasized respect for the customs, religions, and traditions of conquered peoples, allowing them to practice their faith and maintain their way of life. Some of his noteworthy accomplishments include:

1. The Cyrus Cylinder - Often considered the first declaration of human rights, the Cyrus Cylinder outlines Cyrus's policy of religious tolerance and respect for the customs of conquered peoples.

   

   The Cyrus cylinder established human rights, such as freedom of movement and worship in the Achaemenid persian empire and set a precedent of racial equality. It also documents Cyrus’ restoration if Babylon’s local shrines and temples, and the reinstatement of Babylon’s local religion.

2. The freeing of the Jews - Cyrus allowed the Jews, who had been exiled in Babylon, to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their temple, setting a precedent for religious freedom and tolerance. The Hebrew scribes dubbed him “Cyrus the Messiah” in the Bible, and he also has verses of the Quran where he is thought to be referenced by the name “Zolqarnain”

   

   Depiction of the rebuilding of the Temple in Israel, which Cyrus helped fund upon freeing the Jews from Babylonian captivity

3. The establishment of the Royal Road - Cyrus laid the groundwork for an extensive network of roads that would (under the rule of Darius) eventually connect various parts of his vast empire, facilitating trade, communication, and cultural exchange.

   

   The Royal Road, which would be used by Alexander the great in his invasion and conquest of the Achaemenid Persian empire

4. The Persian Postal System - Cyrus the Great initiated the groundwork for the postal system by creating a network of relay stations and couriers, which was further expanded and organized by his successor, Darius I. About this postal system, Herodotus would grace this system with the remark “Neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor gloom of night stays these couriers from the swift completion of their appointed rounds." This phrase is now often associated with modern postal services, especially the United States Postal Service, so don’t forget to thank Cyrus the next time you send a letter to grandma!

Cyrus the Great's example demonstrates that even in an era characterized by brutality and violence, it was possible for a ruler to lead with wisdom, compassion, and respect for the rights of others. His legacy serves as an inspiration to modern leaders, proving that power need not always be wielded with an iron fist. By treating his subjects fairly and respecting their diverse customs and beliefs, Cyrus was able to build a stable, prosperous empire that has left a lasting impact on human history.

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Cyrus as a model ruler

Xenophon’s semi-fictional biography of Cyrus, the Cyropaedia would inform leaders on the key tenets of benevolent rule for hundreds of years. Even upon his death, Cyrus still espoused the ruler’s use of the carrot over the stick. Here, Xenophon records his account of Cyrus as he speaks to his son and successor Cambyses, on how a leader ought to understand the roots of power.

“And you, Cambyses, you know of yourself, without words from me, that your kingdom is not guarded by this golden sceptre, but by faithful friends; their loyalty is your true staff, a sceptre which shall not fail. But never think that loyal hearts grow up by nature as the grass grows in the field: if that were so, the same men would be loyal to all alike, even as all natural objects are the same to all mankind. No, every leader must win his own followers for himself, and the way to win them is not by violence but by loving-kindness.”

Cyrus was an expert in expanding his empire through strategic acquisitions. Whenever the Persians conquered a city, they would often allow it to continue its traditions, provided they did not interfere with imperial business. This policy of tolerance and respect for local customs allowed the empire to grow rapidly and reduced the chances of rebellion.

Much like modern CEOs, Cyrus understood the importance of successful post-merger integration. By allowing newly conquered territories to maintain their own culture and governance, the Persian Empire was able to ensure smooth transitions and minimize disruptions. Today's CEOs can learn from this approach, promoting inclusivity and respect for diverse opinions within their own organizations.

Delegation and Empowerment

Cyrus the Great's managerial style involved effective delegation and empowerment of his subordinates. He divided his empire into provinces called satrapies, each governed by a satrap who reported directly to him. Cyrus carved out 26 original satrapies from his empire, while Darius added ten more and cemented the system into law. This structure allowed Cyrus to maintain control over the vast empire while empowering local leaders to manage their own territories and dissuading them from revolt by offering them power and autonomy, provided they obey. While a satrap had many powers of a king, he was forbade from calling himself such, and derived his power from Cyrus’ divinity.

Similarly, modern CEOs must balance centralization and decentralization to maintain efficiency and foster innovation. By empowering middle management and local teams, a CEO can encourage entrepreneurial spirit and ownership of results, however, a balance must be struck to keep these players loyal to the firm, and dissuade them from striking out on their own.

The approximate structure of the satrap system under Darius. note that the Royal inspectors acted as a check on satrap power, and were often deployed to the larger or more remote satrapies to keep them under close watch and act as proxies of the Shahanshah’’s will. They were regularly rotated, however, to prevent them from becoming too powerful themselves.

Vision and Legacy

Cyrus the Great was a visionary leader with a clear strategy for his empire. He sought to create a stable and prosperous environment for his subjects by focusing on economic development, infrastructure, and cultural exchange. His legacy includes the remarkable successors of Cambyses and Darius the Great, and his works would serve as the foundation for successor states in the area, from the Macedonian to Seleucid and Parthian Empires. However, the greatest legacy Cyrus would leave stemmed from his reputation as a just and efficient ruler. Leaders for millennia to come would seek to emulate Cyrus in their conduct, and Xenophon’s Cyropaedia would grace the shelves of may royal libraries. Thomas Jefferson famously owned two copies, (now on display at the Library of Congress) and Franklin (who was a fan of the Persian postal service) and Adams also had copies that they consulted regularly.

Thomas Jefferson’s copy of Xenophon’s Cyropaedia

Emerging from brutality and bloodshed, Cyrus laid the foundation for many empires and peoples to come. It’s important to recognize that he fought an uphill battle, and stands out amongst his peers in this regard. His honorable conduct in the possession of near-absolute power is commendable, and can serve as a model for leaders everywhere, from the boardroom to the battlefield. Pick up a copy of the Cyropaedia today!

Until next time,

-Connor, OfAllTrades

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